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different areas

  • 1 different areas of

    lingkup. yang berbeda

    English-Indonesian dictionary > different areas of

  • 2 different areas of the

    lingkup. yang berbeda

    English-Indonesian dictionary > different areas of the

  • 3 compound valley glacier consisting of many tributary glaciers of different orders with independent accumulation areas flowing into the trunk glacier

    Общая лексика: сложный долинный ледник, состоящий из ряда притоков разного порядка с самостоятельными областями пит

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > compound valley glacier consisting of many tributary glaciers of different orders with independent accumulation areas flowing into the trunk glacier

  • 4 diversification

    Gen Mgt
    a strategy to increase the variety of business, service, or product types within an organization. Diversification can be a growth strategy, taking advantage of market opportunities, or it may be aimed at reducing risk by spreading interests over different areas. It can be achieved through acquisition or through internal research and development, and it can involve managing two, a few, or many different areas of interest. Diversification can also be a corporate strategy of investment in acquisitions within a broad portfolio range by a large holding company. One distinct type is horizontal diversification, which involves expansion into a similar product area, for example, a domestic furniture manufacturer producing office furniture. Another is vertical diversification, in which a company moves into a different level of the supply chain, for example, a manufacturing company becoming a retailer. A well-known example of diversification is the move of Bic, the ballpoint pen manufacturer, into the production of disposable razors.

    The ultimate business dictionary > diversification

  • 5 full screen

    "Capable of using or being displayed on the full area of a display screen. Applications running in windowing environments, although they might use the entire area of the screen, commonly allocate different areas to different windows, any of which can be enlarged to fill the entire screen."

    English-Arabic terms dictionary > full screen

  • 6 Antidoping-Programm

    ■ Gesamtheit aller Maßnahmen im Bereich Antidoping, deren Ziele der Erhalt und die Verteidigung des Sportgeistes, der Schutz der körperlichen Gesundheit und geistigen Integrität der Spieler und die Wahrung der Chancengleichheit für alle Teilnehmer eines Wettbewerbs sind und deren Umsetzung Sportverbänden und Antidoping-Organisationen obliegt.
    ■ The entirety of measures taken by sports organisations and federations and national authorities in the different areas of anti-doping which aim to uphold and preserve the ethics of sport, to safeguard the physical health and mental integrity of athletes and to ensure that all sport competitors have an equal chance.

    German-english football dictionary > Antidoping-Programm

  • 7 Dopingbekämpfung

    ■ Gesamtheit aller Maßnahmen im Bereich Antidoping, deren Ziele der Erhalt und die Verteidigung des Sportgeistes, der Schutz der körperlichen Gesundheit und geistigen Integrität der Spieler und die Wahrung der Chancengleichheit für alle Teilnehmer eines Wettbewerbs sind und deren Umsetzung Sportverbänden und Antidoping-Organisationen obliegt.
    ■ The entirety of measures taken by sports organisations and federations and national authorities in the different areas of anti-doping which aim to uphold and preserve the ethics of sport, to safeguard the physical health and mental integrity of athletes and to ensure that all sport competitors have an equal chance.

    German-english football dictionary > Dopingbekämpfung

  • 8 skim the surface

    нахвататься верхов

    He seems knowledgeable in many different areas but he only skims the surface of everything he touches.

    Англо-русский словарь идиом и фразовых глаголов > skim the surface

  • 9 in

    in accordance with 1. в соответствии с
    in accordance with good practice в соответствии с принятой / установившейся практикой 2. руководствуясь чем-л.
    in addition to that вместе с тем
    in advance 1. заранее; заблаговременно
    Supplier shall notify the Contractor sufficiently in advance of any fabricating operations Обо всех производственных операциях Поставщик заблаговременно извещает Подрядчика 2. авансом (т.е. "вперед", в отличие от in arrears- см.)
    in all ways 1. во всех отношениях 2. с любой точки зрения
    in ample time заблаговременно ( с оттенком задолго до, с большим запасом [ по времени])
    in analysis based on limit load при расчете по предельным нагрузкам
    in anticipation 1. исподволь 2. заблаговременно
    in arrears по факту (т.е. по истечении какого-то времени, «потом», в отличие от in advance - см)
    in attendance Those in attendance included Присутствовали:...
    in basic terms вообще говоря; в общем и целом; как правило
    in block letters печатными буквами
    in the blueprint stage в стадии проектирования (перен. в стадии планирования, "на бумаге"; в отличие от in the hardware stage - см.)
    in bulk quantities в товарных количествах
    in case a (
    the)
    seal is disturbed при нарушении пломбы
    in case of eye contact при попадании в глаза (опасного / вредного вещества /материала)
    in case of ingestion при попадании внутрь (опасного / вредного вещества /материала)
    in case of inhalation при вдыхании (опасного / вредного вещества / материала)
    in case of respiratory standstill при остановке дыхания
    in case of skin contact при попадании на кожу (опасного /вредного вещества /материала)
    in case of swallowing при проглатывании (опасного /вредного вещества /материала)
    in the clear: be sure all personnel are in the clear убедиться в том, что весь персонал находится в безопасности (т.е. вне опасности, на безопасном расстоянии и т.д.)
    in codex form в форме книги
    in compliance with по (напр., нормам, ТУ и т.д.);
    in compliance with your request по Вашей просьбе
    in conclusion, В заключение...
    in conflict with: In conflict with this is... ( в начале предлож.) В то же время...; Вместе с тем...
    in conformance to по (напр., нормам, ТУ и т.д.)
    in conjunction with 1. параллельно с
    In conjunction with an increase in rate, the tube position corresponding to... is located farther upstream Параллельно с увеличением скорости [ осадкообразования] сечение на трубке, соответствующее..., смещается все выше по потоку 2. одновременно с 3. в сочетании с
    in connection with 1. в свете... 2. в контексте чего-л. 3. in connection with Fig. 13... Если обратиться к рис. 13...
    in consideration of 1. принимая во внимание 2. учитывая
    in a conspicuous location на видном месте
    in a conspicuous place на видном месте
    in a conspicuous position на видном месте
    in consultation with по согласованию с; по договоренности с
    in contemplation of в преддверии чего-л.;
    in contemplation of our upcoming meeting в преддверии нашей предстоящей встречи
    in the context of 1. в связи с; в свете; в плане 2. применительно к 3. если иметь в виду; с учетом 4. на примере 5. с точки зрения 6. в случае 7. в отношении 8. в области 9. в рамках
    in continuation of в развитие чего-л.
    in contradiction with противоречащий чему-л.
    if this is not in contradiction with если это не противоречит...
    in contrast (npomueum.) 1. же
    In contrast, the algorithm presented here... Предлагаемый же здесь метод... 2. что же касается...
    These studies have concentrated in the upper water layers... In contrast, rather little detailed work seems to have been undertaken in the very deepest parts of the[ Caspian] Sea Эти исследования проводились в основном в верхних слоях воды... Что же касается самых глубоких участков [ Каспийского] моря, то там, похоже, практически не проводилось сколько-нибудь детальных исследовательских работ
    in contrast to в отличие от; в то время как; что же касается
    in control не выходящий за установленные предельные значения (напр., о размерах, механических свойствах, технологических параметрах и т.д.)
    in a controlled manner организованно
    the practice of burning off waste gas in a controlled manner установившаяся / принятая практика организованного сжигания сбросного газа [ в факеле]
    in a customary manner обычным способом; по обычной схеме; тривиально
    A shall be determined in a customary manner А определяется обычным путем / по обычной схеме / тривиально
    in a design situation при проектировании
    in diction словами; на обычном языке; открытым текстом (т.е. не кодом)
    in a direction parallel to по ходу (напр., трубопровода)
    in document format отдельным изданием
    in domestic experience в отечественной практике
    in due time в установленные сроки; своевременно
    in effect по существу
    in either direction в любом направлении
    in either direction parallel to the piping run в любом направлении по ходу трубопровода
    in excess больше ( чем нужно);
    well in excess заведомо больше; с избытком
    in excess of 1. не укладывающийся в 2. сверх чего-л.
    weld material in excess of the specified weld size избыток материала сварного шва сверх установленного размера
    in an expedient manner оперативно
    in fact более того,...
    in force действующий (напр., законодательство, договор и т.д.)
    in the first place вообще
    in foreseeable future в обозримом будущем
    in formative stage в стадии становления
    in free format в произвольном виде
    in full detail исчерпывающе; исчерпывающим образом; исчерпывающе подробно; с исчерпывающей полнотой
    in full standing полноправный
    in full view в пределах прямой видимости (зд. «прямо» означает не впереди, перед, а незаслоненный, незагороженный)
    in furtherance of в продолжение чего-л.;
    in furtherance of our talks в продолжение нашего разговора
    in furtherance to в развитие чего-л.;
    in furtherance to your letter dated01.15.2004 в развитие Вашего письма от 15.01.2004 г.
    in ( the) future 1. со временем; впоследствии 2. в перспективе
    in general: A does not in general correspond to В А не всегда соответствует В
    in general terms вообще говоря
    in the generic sense собирательно
    in good order в полной исправности; в исправном рабочем состоянии;
    in good working order в исправном рабочем состоянии
    in good standing полноправный
    in a gradual manner плавно;
    pre-heat shall be applied in a gradual and uniform manner подогрев производится плавно и равномерно
    in greater detail намного / гораздо полнее
    in hand (см. тж. on hand) наличный; имеющийся
    quantity in hand наличные запасы;
    work in hand намеченная к выполнению работа; запланированная работа; заданная работа
    in the hardware stage в стадии конструктивной сборки (в отличие от in the blueprint stage - см.)
    in hidden form (матем.) в неявном виде; в неявной форме
    in the initial stages на первых порах
    in isolation автономно
    in line with 1. в увязке с
    in line with overall project requirements в увязке с потребностями проекта в целом 2. (перен.) в русле чего-л. 3. вдоль чего-л. 4. соосно с чем-л. 5. параллельно чему-л.
    in the long run в перспективе
    in a... manner: in a gradual and uniform manner плавно и равномерно
    in a masterful way мастерски
    The problem has been dealt with in a masterful way Поставленная задача решена мастерски
    in the mean в обычном смысле
    in the melting-pot: be in the melting-pot находиться в стадии решения / принятия решения
    in a modification в другом исполнении
    in multiples of в количестве
    in the near term в краткосрочной перспективе
    in need of нуждающийся в чем-л.;
    those found to be in need of assistance те, кто определенно нуждаются в помощи
    in no case ни при каких обстоятельствах
    in a non-discriminative manner непредвзято
    in no time в сжатые сроки
    in no way никоим образом не
    The signing of this document by a Company agent shall in no way relieve the Manufacturer of any responsibility for Визирование / Факт подписания настоящего документа представителем Компании никоим образом не освобождает Поставщика от ответственности за;
    Inspection by the Contractor in no way relieves the Supplier of his responsibility to meet the requirements of... Проведение / Факт проведения контроля Подрядчиком никоим образом не освобождает Поставщика от ответственности за выполнение требований...
    in operation задействованный;
    which may fluctuate due to the number of fire water hydrants in operation который может колебаться в зависимости от числа задействованных пожарных гидрантов
    in an orderly manner организованно; в организованном порядке
    in outline в общих чертах
    in one's own element в своей сфере
    in one's own milieu в своей сфере
    in particular в первую очередь; прежде всего
    in passing заметим в скобках; заметим попутно; между прочим
    in person лично
    in place:
    1) be in place 1. иметь наготове; представлять (документы, согласования и т.д.) 2. (описат.) используемый (реально, фактически)
    2) have in place располагать (чем-л.)
    3) put in place 1. внедрять; вводить в действие; внедрять в практику 2. реализовывать 3. выполнять ( фактически); осуществлять 4. задействовать; (перен..) запускать (напр., процесс перехода на новый материал)
    in point:
    1) case in point характерный пример; образчик; эпизод
    2) tool in point подходящее / нужное / соответствующее средство
    in the present circumstances 1. в данном случае 2. в этих условиях
    in ( the) press готовится к печати
    in print;
    Books in print (КВП) "Книги, имеющиеся в продаже" (а не в печати!)
    in progress быть ( пока) незавершенным
    Since work is still in progress to define А Поскольку работа по определению А еще не завершена,...
    in pursuance of: 1. следуя (напр., нашему плану) 2. in pursuance of your letter dated01.15.2004 в связи с Вашим письмом от 15.01.2004 г.; в контексте Вашего письма от 15.01.2004 г. 3. in pursuance of your orders во исполнение Ваших указаний
    in pursuance to в ответ на;
    in pursuance to your letter в ответ на Ваше письмо
    in question рассматриваемый
    in receipt of: We are in receipt of your letter dated Мы получили Ваше письмо от...
    in recent years в последние годы
    in recognition of 1. отдавая должное 2. принимая во внимание 3. с учетом
    in reference: in reference to your inquiry dated На Ваш запрос от...
    in this regard (синон. in this context) в этой связи
    in response of в соответствии с;
    in response of A comments against В в соответствии с замечаниями А по В
    in response to в соответствии с;
    in response to crew comments against B1 unit в соответствии с замечаниями экипажа по блоку В1;
    in retaliation в отместку за что-л.
    in retrospect задним числом
    in routine use in: be in routine use in обычно используется в
    in running order годный к пуску (напр., блок электростанции)
    in a sense в известном смысле
    in a short time в недалеком будущем
    in situ на своем месте
    in so doing ( в начале предлож.) При этом...
    in so far as коль скоро
    in some instances... and in others в одних случаях..., а в других случаях
    in some locations..., in other (
    locations) в одних местах..., в других...
    in spurts скачкообразный (напр., о росте трещины)
    in step with по мере (увеличения, уменьшения, роста, снижения, и т.д.];
    in step with the growth in GDP по мере роста / увеличения валового внутреннего продукта
    in substitution to взамен чего-л. (напр., выдавать доработанный чертеж: проекта вместо другого, предыдущего)
    in summary в общем (и целом)
    in terms of (ЛДП) 1. в плане чего-л.; в части чего-л. 2. если говорить о 3. (матем.) относительно
    A can be written in terms of stress, displacement... А можно записать относительно напряжений, перемещений... 4. с точки зрения
    The processes that... have been evaluated in terms of the reduction of total reactive nitrogen Процессы, которые..., оценивали с точки зрения снижения концентрации общего реакцион-носпособного азота 5. по...
    These zones were examined separately in terms of how they influenced the exhaust level of NOx Параметры каждой из этих зон исследовали раздельно по их влиянию на интенсивность образования
    NOx 6. в вопросах... 7. в пересчете на 8. в соответствии
    in this context 1. здесь; в этом / данном случае; в этом смысле 2. в данной ситуации; в такой ситуации 3. в этой связи; в связи с этим 4. при этом условии 5. при такой постановке 6. в рамках; в свете
    in this instance А если это так, то; А раз это так, то
    in a timely manner оперативно
    Bureau of Land Management will make every effort to process applications for rights-of-way in a timely manner Управление земплепользования США примет все меры к оперативному рассмотрению заявлений на получение полосы отчуждения / отвода
    in a tough spot: be in a tough spot находиться / оказаться в затруднительном положении
    in a uniform manner равномерно
    in unique cases в исключительных случаях
    in unison параллельно; совместно; в связке
    if a load is lifted by two or more trucks working in unison если перевалка груза осуществляется двумя или более самосвалами, работающими в связке
    in use 1. принятый (в знач. находящийся в употреблении)
    standard operating procedure in use within the US обычная методика / обычный порядок работы, принятая / принятый в США 2. находящийся в обороте 3. at the locations where the equipment is in use в тех местах, где эта техника эксплуатируется / используется / задействуется
    in a variety of[ different areas] в самых различных [ областях]
    in the vicinity of в зоне чего-л.;
    in the vicinity of fire в зоне огня ( пожара)
    in view of 1. в связи с; коль скоро; в свете чего-л.; на основании чего-л. in view of the foregoing в связи с вышеизложенным; в свете вышеизложенного; на основании вышеизложенного 2. in view of the fact that в связи с тем, что
    in which case и тогда...
    in witness whereof в удостоверение чего...
    in words прописью ( о цифрах)
    in a workmanlike manner квалифицированно; мастерски; "классно"
    in writing в письменном виде
    in a wrong place 1. в неположенном месте 2. (разг.) не там

    English-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical difficulties vocabulary > in

  • 10 variety

    (КВП — не только разнообразие!)
    1) спектр (напр., нефтей - см. комментарий)
    large variety широкий спектр чего-л.
    2) ассортимент; номенклатура
    a variety of широкая номенклатура (напр., насосов)
    3) группа
    wide variety of nonpolar solids большая группа неполярных твердых веществ
    4) (в грам. знач. прил.) различные
    in a variety of different areas в самых различных областях
    -----
    КОММЕНТАРИЙ: variety 1) спектр (напр., нефтей)
    Возможно, у некоторых употребление слова нефть во множественном числе (нефтей) вызовет недоумение или даже возражение. Но это вполне употребительная - среди специалистов - форма, хотя, согласен, и не очень распространенная в обычной разговорной практике. Можно считать это слово термином и, таким образом, смириться с его использованием.

    English-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical difficulties vocabulary > variety

  • 11 benchmark

    ['benʧmɑːk] 1. сущ.
    1) мерка; мерило; критерий; стандарт

    Proponents of the metric system believe that kilometres per hour should be the benchmark unit for speed. — Защитники метрической системы считают, что скорость должна измеряться в километрах в час.

    Manchester United are still the benchmark against which we measure ourselves. — "Манчестер Юнайтед" всё ещё остаётся для нас стандартом, с которым мы постоянно себя сравниваем.

    Syn:
    yardstick 2), standard 1. 1) а), criterion
    2) топографическая (от)метка уровня, отметка высоты
    2. гл.

    a benchmarking study — анализ деятельности организации путём сравнения с успешно функционирующей организацией

    The firm benchmarked its pay against that in industry. — Зарплата в фирме была стандартная, такая же как и в большинстве других фирм данной отрасли.

    In order to determine how different areas of the business should be operated, airlines routinely benchmark their operations against competitors or other potential service providers. (R. Munck, Labour and Globalisation) — Чтобы определить стратегию развития различных направлений своей деятельности, авиакомпании регулярно сравнивают себя с конкурентами или другими возможными поставщиками услуг.

    You may want to benchmark against like organizations (perhaps competitors) or against best-in-class organizations. (D. G. Cotts, Ed. P. Rondeau, The Facility Manager's Guide to Finance and Budgeting) — Возможно, у вас возникнет желание сравнить себя с подобными организациями (например, конкурентами) или с лучшими организациями в своём классе.

    Англо-русский современный словарь > benchmark

  • 12 frameset

    A page that divides a Web browser's window into different areas called frames that can independently display Web pages.

    English-Arabic terms dictionary > frameset

  • 13 Navigation Bar

    A control bar in Outlook that enables the user to navigate quickly to different areas or views within the application.

    English-Arabic terms dictionary > Navigation Bar

  • 14 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
    ————————————————————————————————————————

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 15 Mind

       It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)
       Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)
       The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)
       MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)
       [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)
       Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)
       7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses
       Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....
       Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.
       In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.
       The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)
       Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.
    ... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind

  • 16 distinct

    adjective
    1) (different) verschieden

    as distinct from — im Unterschied zu

    2) (clearly perceptible, decided) deutlich; klar [Stimme, Sicht]
    3) (separate) unterschiedlich
    * * *
    [di'stiŋkt]
    1) (easily seen, heard or noticed: There are distinct differences between the two; Her voice is very distinct.) deutlich
    2) (separate or different: Those two birds are quite distinct - you couldn't confuse them.) unterschiedlich
    •
    - academic.ru/21317/distinctly">distinctly
    - distinctness
    - distinction
    - distinctive
    - distinctively
    * * *
    dis·tinct
    [dɪˈstɪŋ(k)t]
    1. (different) verschieden
    ▪ to be \distinct from sth sich akk von etw dat unterscheiden, unterschiedlich sein
    as \distinct from sth im Unterschied zu etw dat
    2. (perceivable) deutlich
    \distinct words deutliche Worte
    3. attr (marked) eindeutig
    to get the \distinct impression that... den nachhaltigen Eindruck bekommen, dass...
    * * *
    [dI'stIŋkt]
    adj
    1) (= different) parts, groups, types, areas, phases verschieden, unterschiedlich

    to be distinct from sth —

    what he thinks, as distinct from what he says — was er denkt, im Unterschied dazu, was er sagt

    2) (= definite) sign, change, memory, lack, improvement deutlich; flavour bestimmt; image, sound klar, deutlich

    to have distinct memories of sb/sth — sich deutlich an jdn/etw erinnern

    to get the distinct idea or impression that... — den deutlichen Eindruck bekommen, dass...

    to have the distinct feeling that... — das bestimmte Gefühl haben, dass...

    to have a distinct advantage ( over sb) — (jdm gegenüber) klar or deutlich im Vorteil sein

    there is a distinct possibility that... — es besteht eindeutig die Möglichkeit, dass...

    * * *
    distinct [dıˈstıŋkt] adj (adv → distinctly)
    1. ver-, unterschieden ( beide:
    from von):
    as distinct from im Unterschied zu, zum Unterschied von
    2. einzeln, (voneinander) getrennt, (ab)gesondert
    3. verschiedenartig
    4. ausgeprägt, charakteristisch:
    distinct personality ausgeprägte Persönlichkeit
    5. klar, deutlich, eindeutig, bestimmt, entschieden, ausgesprochen:
    have the distinct feeling that … das bestimmte Gefühl haben, dass …;
    have a distinct preference for eine ausgesprochene Vorliebe haben für;
    a distinct pronunciation eine deutliche Aussprache
    6. distinct vision scharfe Augen pl
    * * *
    adjective
    1) (different) verschieden
    2) (clearly perceptible, decided) deutlich; klar [Stimme, Sicht]
    3) (separate) unterschiedlich
    * * *
    (from) adj.
    deutlich adj.
    verschieden (von) adj. adj.
    ausgeprägt adj.
    deutlich adj.
    verschieden adj.

    English-german dictionary > distinct

  • 17 modular data center

    1. модульный центр обработки данных (ЦОД)

     

    модульный центр обработки данных (ЦОД)
    -
    [Интент]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    [ http://loosebolts.wordpress.com/2008/12/02/our-vision-for-generation-4-modular-data-centers-one-way-of-getting-it-just-right/]

    [ http://dcnt.ru/?p=9299#more-9299]

    Data Centers are a hot topic these days. No matter where you look, this once obscure aspect of infrastructure is getting a lot of attention. For years, there have been cost pressures on IT operations and this, when the need for modern capacity is greater than ever, has thrust data centers into the spotlight. Server and rack density continues to rise, placing DC professionals and businesses in tighter and tougher situations while they struggle to manage their IT environments. And now hyper-scale cloud infrastructure is taking traditional technologies to limits never explored before and focusing the imagination of the IT industry on new possibilities.

    В настоящее время центры обработки данных являются широко обсуждаемой темой. Куда ни посмотришь, этот некогда малоизвестный аспект инфраструктуры привлекает все больше внимания. Годами ИТ-отделы испытывали нехватку средств и это выдвинуло ЦОДы в центр внимания, в то время, когда необходимость в современных ЦОДах стала как никогда высокой. Плотность серверов и стоек продолжают расти, все больше усложняя ситуацию для специалистов в области охлаждения и организаций в их попытках управлять своими ИТ-средами. И теперь гипермасштабируемая облачная инфраструктура подвергает традиционные технологии невиданным ранее нагрузкам, и заставляет ИТ-индустрию искать новые возможности.

    At Microsoft, we have focused a lot of thought and research around how to best operate and maintain our global infrastructure and we want to share those learnings. While obviously there are some aspects that we keep to ourselves, we have shared how we operate facilities daily, our technologies and methodologies, and, most importantly, how we monitor and manage our facilities. Whether it’s speaking at industry events, inviting customers to our “Microsoft data center conferences” held in our data centers, or through other media like blogging and white papers, we believe sharing best practices is paramount and will drive the industry forward. So in that vein, we have some interesting news to share.

    В компании MicroSoft уделяют большое внимание изучению наилучших методов эксплуатации и технического обслуживания своей глобальной инфраструктуры и делятся результатами своих исследований. И хотя мы, конечно, не раскрываем некоторые аспекты своих исследований, мы делимся повседневным опытом эксплуатации дата-центров, своими технологиями и методологиями и, что важнее всего, методами контроля и управления своими объектами. Будь то доклады на отраслевых событиях, приглашение клиентов на наши конференции, которые посвящены центрам обработки данных MicroSoft, и проводятся в этих самых дата-центрах, или использование других средств, например, блоги и спецификации, мы уверены, что обмен передовым опытом имеет первостепенное значение и будет продвигать отрасль вперед.

    Today we are sharing our Generation 4 Modular Data Center plan. This is our vision and will be the foundation of our cloud data center infrastructure in the next five years. We believe it is one of the most revolutionary changes to happen to data centers in the last 30 years. Joining me, in writing this blog are Daniel Costello, my director of Data Center Research and Engineering and Christian Belady, principal power and cooling architect. I feel their voices will add significant value to driving understanding around the many benefits included in this new design paradigm.

    Сейчас мы хотим поделиться своим планом модульного дата-центра четвертого поколения. Это наше видение и оно будет основанием для инфраструктуры наших облачных дата-центров в ближайшие пять лет. Мы считаем, что это одно из самых революционных изменений в дата-центрах за последние 30 лет. Вместе со мной в написании этого блога участвовали Дэниел Костелло, директор по исследованиям и инжинирингу дата-центров, и Кристиан Белади, главный архитектор систем энергоснабжения и охлаждения. Мне кажется, что их авторитет придаст больше веса большому количеству преимуществ, включенных в эту новую парадигму проектирования.

    Our “Gen 4” modular data centers will take the flexibility of containerized servers—like those in our Chicago data center—and apply it across the entire facility. So what do we mean by modular? Think of it like “building blocks”, where the data center will be composed of modular units of prefabricated mechanical, electrical, security components, etc., in addition to containerized servers.

    Was there a key driver for the Generation 4 Data Center?

    Наши модульные дата-центры “Gen 4” будут гибкими с контейнерами серверов – как серверы в нашем чикагском дата-центре. И гибкость будет применяться ко всему ЦОД. Итак, что мы подразумеваем под модульностью? Мы думаем о ней как о “строительных блоках”, где дата-центр будет состоять из модульных блоков изготовленных в заводских условиях электрических систем и систем охлаждения, а также систем безопасности и т.п., в дополнение к контейнеризованным серверам.
    Был ли ключевой стимул для разработки дата-центра четвертого поколения?


    If we were to summarize the promise of our Gen 4 design into a single sentence it would be something like this: “A highly modular, scalable, efficient, just-in-time data center capacity program that can be delivered anywhere in the world very quickly and cheaply, while allowing for continued growth as required.” Sounds too good to be true, doesn’t it? Well, keep in mind that these concepts have been in initial development and prototyping for over a year and are based on cumulative knowledge of previous facility generations and the advances we have made since we began our investments in earnest on this new design.

    Если бы нам нужно было обобщить достоинства нашего проекта Gen 4 в одном предложении, это выглядело бы следующим образом: “Центр обработки данных с высоким уровнем модульности, расширяемости, и энергетической эффективности, а также возможностью постоянного расширения, в случае необходимости, который можно очень быстро и дешево развертывать в любом месте мира”. Звучит слишком хорошо для того чтобы быть правдой, не так ли? Ну, не забывайте, что эти концепции находились в процессе начальной разработки и создания опытного образца в течение более одного года и основываются на опыте, накопленном в ходе развития предыдущих поколений ЦОД, а также успехах, сделанных нами со времени, когда мы начали вкладывать серьезные средства в этот новый проект.

    One of the biggest challenges we’ve had at Microsoft is something Mike likes to call the ‘Goldilock’s Problem’. In a nutshell, the problem can be stated as:

    The worst thing we can do in delivering facilities for the business is not have enough capacity online, thus limiting the growth of our products and services.

    Одну из самых больших проблем, с которыми приходилось сталкиваться Майкрософт, Майк любит называть ‘Проблемой Лютика’. Вкратце, эту проблему можно выразить следующим образом:

    Самое худшее, что может быть при строительстве ЦОД для бизнеса, это не располагать достаточными производственными мощностями, и тем самым ограничивать рост наших продуктов и сервисов.

    The second worst thing we can do in delivering facilities for the business is to have too much capacity online.

    А вторым самым худшим моментом в этой сфере может слишком большое количество производственных мощностей.

    This has led to a focus on smart, intelligent growth for the business — refining our overall demand picture. It can’t be too hot. It can’t be too cold. It has to be ‘Just Right!’ The capital dollars of investment are too large to make without long term planning. As we struggled to master these interesting challenges, we had to ensure that our technological plan also included solutions for the business and operational challenges we faced as well.
    So let’s take a high level look at our Generation 4 design

    Это заставило нас сосредоточиваться на интеллектуальном росте для бизнеса — refining our overall demand picture. Это не должно быть слишком горячим. И это не должно быть слишком холодным. Это должно быть ‘как раз, таким как надо!’ Нельзя делать такие большие капиталовложения без долгосрочного планирования. Пока мы старались решить эти интересные проблемы, мы должны были гарантировать, что наш технологический план будет также включать решения для коммерческих и эксплуатационных проблем, с которыми нам также приходилось сталкиваться.
    Давайте рассмотрим наш проект дата-центра четвертого поколения

    Are you ready for some great visuals? Check out this video at Soapbox. Click here for the Microsoft 4th Gen Video.

    It’s a concept video that came out of my Data Center Research and Engineering team, under Daniel Costello, that will give you a view into what we think is the future.

    From a configuration, construct-ability and time to market perspective, our primary goals and objectives are to modularize the whole data center. Not just the server side (like the Chicago facility), but the mechanical and electrical space as well. This means using the same kind of parts in pre-manufactured modules, the ability to use containers, skids, or rack-based deployments and the ability to tailor the Redundancy and Reliability requirements to the application at a very specific level.


    Посмотрите это видео, перейдите по ссылке для просмотра видео о Microsoft 4th Gen:

    Это концептуальное видео, созданное командой отдела Data Center Research and Engineering, возглавляемого Дэниелом Костелло, которое даст вам наше представление о будущем.

    С точки зрения конфигурации, строительной технологичности и времени вывода на рынок, нашими главными целями и задачами агрегатирование всего дата-центра. Не только серверную часть, как дата-центр в Чикаго, но также системы охлаждения и электрические системы. Это означает применение деталей одного типа в сборных модулях, возможность использования контейнеров, салазок, или стоечных систем, а также возможность подстраивать требования избыточности и надежности для данного приложения на очень специфичном уровне.

    Our goals from a cost perspective were simple in concept but tough to deliver. First and foremost, we had to reduce the capital cost per critical Mega Watt by the class of use. Some applications can run with N-level redundancy in the infrastructure, others require a little more infrastructure for support. These different classes of infrastructure requirements meant that optimizing for all cost classes was paramount. At Microsoft, we are not a one trick pony and have many Online products and services (240+) that require different levels of operational support. We understand that and ensured that we addressed it in our design which will allow us to reduce capital costs by 20%-40% or greater depending upon class.


    Нашими целями в области затрат были концептуально простыми, но трудно реализуемыми. В первую очередь мы должны были снизить капитальные затраты в пересчете на один мегаватт, в зависимости от класса резервирования. Некоторые приложения могут вполне работать на базе инфраструктуры с резервированием на уровне N, то есть без резервирования, а для работы других приложений требуется больше инфраструктуры. Эти разные классы требований инфраструктуры подразумевали, что оптимизация всех классов затрат имеет преобладающее значение. В Майкрософт мы не ограничиваемся одним решением и располагаем большим количеством интерактивных продуктов и сервисов (240+), которым требуются разные уровни эксплуатационной поддержки. Мы понимаем это, и учитываем это в своем проекте, который позволит нам сокращать капитальные затраты на 20%-40% или более в зависимости от класса.

    For example, non-critical or geo redundant applications have low hardware reliability requirements on a location basis. As a result, Gen 4 can be configured to provide stripped down, low-cost infrastructure with little or no redundancy and/or temperature control. Let’s say an Online service team decides that due to the dramatically lower cost, they will simply use uncontrolled outside air with temperatures ranging 10-35 C and 20-80% RH. The reality is we are already spec-ing this for all of our servers today and working with server vendors to broaden that range even further as Gen 4 becomes a reality. For this class of infrastructure, we eliminate generators, chillers, UPSs, and possibly lower costs relative to traditional infrastructure.

    Например, некритичные или гео-избыточные системы имеют низкие требования к аппаратной надежности на основе местоположения. В результате этого, Gen 4 можно конфигурировать для упрощенной, недорогой инфраструктуры с низким уровнем (или вообще без резервирования) резервирования и / или температурного контроля. Скажем, команда интерактивного сервиса решает, что, в связи с намного меньшими затратами, они будут просто использовать некондиционированный наружный воздух с температурой 10-35°C и влажностью 20-80% RH. В реальности мы уже сегодня предъявляем эти требования к своим серверам и работаем с поставщиками серверов над еще большим расширением диапазона температур, так как наш модуль и подход Gen 4 становится реальностью. Для подобного класса инфраструктуры мы удаляем генераторы, чиллеры, ИБП, и, возможно, будем предлагать более низкие затраты, по сравнению с традиционной инфраструктурой.

    Applications that demand higher level of redundancy or temperature control will use configurations of Gen 4 to meet those needs, however, they will also cost more (but still less than traditional data centers). We see this cost difference driving engineering behavioral change in that we predict more applications will drive towards Geo redundancy to lower costs.

    Системы, которым требуется более высокий уровень резервирования или температурного контроля, будут использовать конфигурации Gen 4, отвечающие этим требованиям, однако, они будут также стоить больше. Но все равно они будут стоить меньше, чем традиционные дата-центры. Мы предвидим, что эти различия в затратах будут вызывать изменения в методах инжиниринга, и по нашим прогнозам, это будет выражаться в переходе все большего числа систем на гео-избыточность и меньшие затраты.

    Another cool thing about Gen 4 is that it allows us to deploy capacity when our demand dictates it. Once finalized, we will no longer need to make large upfront investments. Imagine driving capital costs more closely in-line with actual demand, thus greatly reducing time-to-market and adding the capacity Online inherent in the design. Also reduced is the amount of construction labor required to put these “building blocks” together. Since the entire platform requires pre-manufacture of its core components, on-site construction costs are lowered. This allows us to maximize our return on invested capital.

    Еще одно достоинство Gen 4 состоит в том, что он позволяет нам разворачивать дополнительные мощности, когда нам это необходимо. Как только мы закончим проект, нам больше не нужно будет делать большие начальные капиталовложения. Представьте себе возможность более точного согласования капитальных затрат с реальными требованиями, и тем самым значительного снижения времени вывода на рынок и интерактивного добавления мощностей, предусматриваемого проектом. Также снижен объем строительных работ, требуемых для сборки этих “строительных блоков”. Поскольку вся платформа требует предварительного изготовления ее базовых компонентов, затраты на сборку также снижены. Это позволит нам увеличить до максимума окупаемость своих капиталовложений.
    Мы все подвергаем сомнению

    In our design process, we questioned everything. You may notice there is no roof and some might be uncomfortable with this. We explored the need of one and throughout our research we got some surprising (positive) results that showed one wasn’t needed.

    В своем процессе проектирования мы все подвергаем сомнению. Вы, наверное, обратили внимание на отсутствие крыши, и некоторым специалистам это могло не понравиться. Мы изучили необходимость в крыше и в ходе своих исследований получили удивительные результаты, которые показали, что крыша не нужна.
    Серийное производство дата центров


    In short, we are striving to bring Henry Ford’s Model T factory to the data center. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford#Model_T. Gen 4 will move data centers from a custom design and build model to a commoditized manufacturing approach. We intend to have our components built in factories and then assemble them in one location (the data center site) very quickly. Think about how a computer, car or plane is built today. Components are manufactured by different companies all over the world to a predefined spec and then integrated in one location based on demands and feature requirements. And just like Henry Ford’s assembly line drove the cost of building and the time-to-market down dramatically for the automobile industry, we expect Gen 4 to do the same for data centers. Everything will be pre-manufactured and assembled on the pad.

    Мы хотим применить модель автомобильной фабрики Генри Форда к дата-центру. Проект Gen 4 будет способствовать переходу от модели специализированного проектирования и строительства к товарно-производственному, серийному подходу. Мы намерены изготавливать свои компоненты на заводах, а затем очень быстро собирать их в одном месте, в месте строительства дата-центра. Подумайте о том, как сегодня изготавливается компьютер, автомобиль или самолет. Компоненты изготавливаются по заранее определенным спецификациям разными компаниями во всем мире, затем собираются в одном месте на основе спроса и требуемых характеристик. И точно так же как сборочный конвейер Генри Форда привел к значительному уменьшению затрат на производство и времени вывода на рынок в автомобильной промышленности, мы надеемся, что Gen 4 сделает то же самое для дата-центров. Все будет предварительно изготавливаться и собираться на месте.
    Невероятно энергоэффективный ЦОД


    And did we mention that this platform will be, overall, incredibly energy efficient? From a total energy perspective not only will we have remarkable PUE values, but the total cost of energy going into the facility will be greatly reduced as well. How much energy goes into making concrete? Will we need as much of it? How much energy goes into the fuel of the construction vehicles? This will also be greatly reduced! A key driver is our goal to achieve an average PUE at or below 1.125 by 2012 across our data centers. More than that, we are on a mission to reduce the overall amount of copper and water used in these facilities. We believe these will be the next areas of industry attention when and if the energy problem is solved. So we are asking today…“how can we build a data center with less building”?

    А мы упоминали, что эта платформа будет, в общем, невероятно энергоэффективной? С точки зрения общей энергии, мы получим не только поразительные значения PUE, но общая стоимость энергии, затраченной на объект будет также значительно снижена. Сколько энергии идет на производство бетона? Нам нужно будет столько энергии? Сколько энергии идет на питание инженерных строительных машин? Это тоже будет значительно снижено! Главным стимулом является достижение среднего PUE не больше 1.125 для всех наших дата-центров к 2012 году. Более того, у нас есть задача сокращения общего количества меди и воды в дата-центрах. Мы думаем, что эти задачи станут следующей заботой отрасли после того как будет решена энергетическая проблема. Итак, сегодня мы спрашиваем себя…“как можно построить дата-центр с меньшим объемом строительных работ”?
    Строительство дата центров без чиллеров

    We have talked openly and publicly about building chiller-less data centers and running our facilities using aggressive outside economization. Our sincerest hope is that Gen 4 will completely eliminate the use of water. Today’s data centers use massive amounts of water and we see water as the next scarce resource and have decided to take a proactive stance on making water conservation part of our plan.

    Мы открыто и публично говорили о строительстве дата-центров без чиллеров и активном использовании в наших центрах обработки данных технологий свободного охлаждения или фрикулинга. Мы искренне надеемся, что Gen 4 позволит полностью отказаться от использования воды. Современные дата-центры расходуют большие объемы воды и так как мы считаем воду следующим редким ресурсом, мы решили принять упреждающие меры и включить экономию воды в свой план.

    By sharing this with the industry, we believe everyone can benefit from our methodology. While this concept and approach may be intimidating (or downright frightening) to some in the industry, disclosure ultimately is better for all of us.

    Делясь этим опытом с отраслью, мы считаем, что каждый сможет извлечь выгоду из нашей методологией. Хотя эта концепция и подход могут показаться пугающими (или откровенно страшными) для некоторых отраслевых специалистов, раскрывая свои планы мы, в конечном счете, делаем лучше для всех нас.

    Gen 4 design (even more than just containers), could reduce the ‘religious’ debates in our industry. With the central spine infrastructure in place, containers or pre-manufactured server halls can be either AC or DC, air-side economized or water-side economized, or not economized at all (though the sanity of that might be questioned). Gen 4 will allow us to decommission, repair and upgrade quickly because everything is modular. No longer will we be governed by the initial decisions made when constructing the facility. We will have almost unlimited use and re-use of the facility and site. We will also be able to use power in an ultra-fluid fashion moving load from critical to non-critical as use and capacity requirements dictate.

    Проект Gen 4 позволит уменьшить ‘религиозные’ споры в нашей отрасли. Располагая базовой инфраструктурой, контейнеры или сборные серверные могут оборудоваться системами переменного или постоянного тока, воздушными или водяными экономайзерами, или вообще не использовать экономайзеры. Хотя можно подвергать сомнению разумность такого решения. Gen 4 позволит нам быстро выполнять работы по выводу из эксплуатации, ремонту и модернизации, поскольку все будет модульным. Мы больше не будем руководствоваться начальными решениями, принятыми во время строительства дата-центра. Мы сможем использовать этот дата-центр и инфраструктуру в течение почти неограниченного периода времени. Мы также сможем применять сверхгибкие методы использования электрической энергии, переводя оборудование в режимы критической или некритической нагрузки в соответствии с требуемой мощностью.
    Gen 4 – это стандартная платформа

    Finally, we believe this is a big game changer. Gen 4 will provide a standard platform that our industry can innovate around. For example, all modules in our Gen 4 will have common interfaces clearly defined by our specs and any vendor that meets these specifications will be able to plug into our infrastructure. Whether you are a computer vendor, UPS vendor, generator vendor, etc., you will be able to plug and play into our infrastructure. This means we can also source anyone, anywhere on the globe to minimize costs and maximize performance. We want to help motivate the industry to further innovate—with innovations from which everyone can reap the benefits.

    Наконец, мы уверены, что это будет фактором, который значительно изменит ситуацию. Gen 4 будет представлять собой стандартную платформу, которую отрасль сможет обновлять. Например, все модули в нашем Gen 4 будут иметь общепринятые интерфейсы, четко определяемые нашими спецификациями, и оборудование любого поставщика, которое отвечает этим спецификациям можно будет включать в нашу инфраструктуру. Независимо от того производите вы компьютеры, ИБП, генераторы и т.п., вы сможете включать свое оборудование нашу инфраструктуру. Это означает, что мы также сможем обеспечивать всех, в любом месте земного шара, тем самым сводя до минимума затраты и максимальной увеличивая производительность. Мы хотим создать в отрасли мотивацию для дальнейших инноваций – инноваций, от которых каждый сможет получать выгоду.
    Главные характеристики дата-центров четвертого поколения Gen4

    To summarize, the key characteristics of our Generation 4 data centers are:

    Scalable
    Plug-and-play spine infrastructure
    Factory pre-assembled: Pre-Assembled Containers (PACs) & Pre-Manufactured Buildings (PMBs)
    Rapid deployment
    De-mountable
    Reduce TTM
    Reduced construction
    Sustainable measures

    Ниже приведены главные характеристики дата-центров четвертого поколения Gen 4:

    Расширяемость;
    Готовая к использованию базовая инфраструктура;
    Изготовление в заводских условиях: сборные контейнеры (PAC) и сборные здания (PMB);
    Быстрота развертывания;
    Возможность демонтажа;
    Снижение времени вывода на рынок (TTM);
    Сокращение сроков строительства;
    Экологичность;

    Map applications to DC Class

    We hope you join us on this incredible journey of change and innovation!

    Long hours of research and engineering time are invested into this process. There are still some long days and nights ahead, but the vision is clear. Rest assured however, that we as refine Generation 4, the team will soon be looking to Generation 5 (even if it is a bit farther out). There is always room to get better.


    Использование систем электропитания постоянного тока.

    Мы надеемся, что вы присоединитесь к нам в этом невероятном путешествии по миру изменений и инноваций!

    На этот проект уже потрачены долгие часы исследований и проектирования. И еще предстоит потратить много дней и ночей, но мы имеем четкое представление о конечной цели. Однако будьте уверены, что как только мы доведем до конца проект модульного дата-центра четвертого поколения, мы вскоре начнем думать о проекте дата-центра пятого поколения. Всегда есть возможность для улучшений.

    So if you happen to come across Goldilocks in the forest, and you are curious as to why she is smiling you will know that she feels very good about getting very close to ‘JUST RIGHT’.

    Generations of Evolution – some background on our data center designs

    Так что, если вы встретите в лесу девочку по имени Лютик, и вам станет любопытно, почему она улыбается, вы будете знать, что она очень довольна тем, что очень близко подошла к ‘ОПИМАЛЬНОМУ РЕШЕНИЮ’.
    Поколения эволюции – история развития наших дата-центров

    We thought you might be interested in understanding what happened in the first three generations of our data center designs. When Ray Ozzie wrote his Software plus Services memo it posed a very interesting challenge to us. The winds of change were at ‘tornado’ proportions. That “plus Services” tag had some significant (and unstated) challenges inherent to it. The first was that Microsoft was going to evolve even further into an operations company. While we had been running large scale Internet services since 1995, this development lead us to an entirely new level. Additionally, these “services” would span across both Internet and Enterprise businesses. To those of you who have to operate “stuff”, you know that these are two very different worlds in operational models and challenges. It also meant that, to achieve the same level of reliability and performance required our infrastructure was going to have to scale globally and in a significant way.

    Мы подумали, что может быть вам будет интересно узнать историю первых трех поколений наших центров обработки данных. Когда Рэй Оззи написал свою памятную записку Software plus Services, он поставил перед нами очень интересную задачу. Ветра перемен двигались с ураганной скоростью. Это окончание “plus Services” скрывало в себе какие-то значительные и неопределенные задачи. Первая заключалась в том, что Майкрософт собиралась в еще большей степени стать операционной компанией. Несмотря на то, что мы управляли большими интернет-сервисами, начиная с 1995 г., эта разработка подняла нас на абсолютно новый уровень. Кроме того, эти “сервисы” охватывали интернет-компании и корпорации. Тем, кому приходится всем этим управлять, известно, что есть два очень разных мира в области операционных моделей и задач. Это также означало, что для достижения такого же уровня надежности и производительности требовалось, чтобы наша инфраструктура располагала значительными возможностями расширения в глобальных масштабах.

    It was that intense atmosphere of change that we first started re-evaluating data center technology and processes in general and our ideas began to reach farther than what was accepted by the industry at large. This was the era of Generation 1. As we look at where most of the world’s data centers are today (and where our facilities were), it represented all the known learning and design requirements that had been in place since IBM built the first purpose-built computer room. These facilities focused more around uptime, reliability and redundancy. Big infrastructure was held accountable to solve all potential environmental shortfalls. This is where the majority of infrastructure in the industry still is today.

    Именно в этой атмосфере серьезных изменений мы впервые начали переоценку ЦОД-технологий и технологий вообще, и наши идеи начали выходить за пределы общепринятых в отрасли представлений. Это была эпоха ЦОД первого поколения. Когда мы узнали, где сегодня располагается большинство мировых дата-центров и где находятся наши предприятия, это представляло весь опыт и навыки проектирования, накопленные со времени, когда IBM построила первую серверную. В этих ЦОД больше внимания уделялось бесперебойной работе, надежности и резервированию. Большая инфраструктура была призвана решать все потенциальные экологические проблемы. Сегодня большая часть инфраструктуры все еще находится на этом этапе своего развития.

    We soon realized that traditional data centers were quickly becoming outdated. They were not keeping up with the demands of what was happening technologically and environmentally. That’s when we kicked off our Generation 2 design. Gen 2 facilities started taking into account sustainability, energy efficiency, and really looking at the total cost of energy and operations.

    Очень быстро мы поняли, что стандартные дата-центры очень быстро становятся устаревшими. Они не поспевали за темпами изменений технологических и экологических требований. Именно тогда мы стали разрабатывать ЦОД второго поколения. В этих дата-центрах Gen 2 стали принимать во внимание такие факторы как устойчивое развитие, энергетическая эффективность, а также общие энергетические и эксплуатационные.

    No longer did we view data centers just for the upfront capital costs, but we took a hard look at the facility over the course of its life. Our Quincy, Washington and San Antonio, Texas facilities are examples of our Gen 2 data centers where we explored and implemented new ways to lessen the impact on the environment. These facilities are considered two leading industry examples, based on their energy efficiency and ability to run and operate at new levels of scale and performance by leveraging clean hydro power (Quincy) and recycled waste water (San Antonio) to cool the facility during peak cooling months.

    Мы больше не рассматривали дата-центры только с точки зрения начальных капитальных затрат, а внимательно следили за работой ЦОД на протяжении его срока службы. Наши объекты в Куинси, Вашингтоне, и Сан-Антонио, Техас, являются образцами наших ЦОД второго поколения, в которых мы изучали и применяли на практике новые способы снижения воздействия на окружающую среду. Эти объекты считаются двумя ведущими отраслевыми примерами, исходя из их энергетической эффективности и способности работать на новых уровнях производительности, основанных на использовании чистой энергии воды (Куинси) и рециклирования отработанной воды (Сан-Антонио) для охлаждения объекта в самых жарких месяцах.

    As we were delivering our Gen 2 facilities into steel and concrete, our Generation 3 facilities were rapidly driving the evolution of the program. The key concepts for our Gen 3 design are increased modularity and greater concentration around energy efficiency and scale. The Gen 3 facility will be best represented by the Chicago, Illinois facility currently under construction. This facility will seem very foreign compared to the traditional data center concepts most of the industry is comfortable with. In fact, if you ever sit around in our container hanger in Chicago it will look incredibly different from a traditional raised-floor data center. We anticipate this modularization will drive huge efficiencies in terms of cost and operations for our business. We will also introduce significant changes in the environmental systems used to run our facilities. These concepts and processes (where applicable) will help us gain even greater efficiencies in our existing footprint, allowing us to further maximize infrastructure investments.

    Так как наши ЦОД второго поколения строились из стали и бетона, наши центры обработки данных третьего поколения начали их быстро вытеснять. Главными концептуальными особенностями ЦОД третьего поколения Gen 3 являются повышенная модульность и большее внимание к энергетической эффективности и масштабированию. Дата-центры третьего поколения лучше всего представлены объектом, который в настоящее время строится в Чикаго, Иллинойс. Этот ЦОД будет выглядеть очень необычно, по сравнению с общепринятыми в отрасли представлениями о дата-центре. Действительно, если вам когда-либо удастся побывать в нашем контейнерном ангаре в Чикаго, он покажется вам совершенно непохожим на обычный дата-центр с фальшполом. Мы предполагаем, что этот модульный подход будет способствовать значительному повышению эффективности нашего бизнеса в отношении затрат и операций. Мы также внесем существенные изменения в климатические системы, используемые в наших ЦОД. Эти концепции и технологии, если применимо, позволят нам добиться еще большей эффективности наших существующих дата-центров, и тем самым еще больше увеличивать капиталовложения в инфраструктуру.

    This is definitely a journey, not a destination industry. In fact, our Generation 4 design has been under heavy engineering for viability and cost for over a year. While the demand of our commercial growth required us to make investments as we grew, we treated each step in the learning as a process for further innovation in data centers. The design for our future Gen 4 facilities enabled us to make visionary advances that addressed the challenges of building, running, and operating facilities all in one concerted effort.

    Это определенно путешествие, а не конечный пункт назначения. На самом деле, наш проект ЦОД четвертого поколения подвергался серьезным испытаниям на жизнеспособность и затраты на протяжении целого года. Хотя необходимость в коммерческом росте требовала от нас постоянных капиталовложений, мы рассматривали каждый этап своего развития как шаг к будущим инновациям в области дата-центров. Проект наших будущих ЦОД четвертого поколения Gen 4 позволил нам делать фантастические предположения, которые касались задач строительства, управления и эксплуатации объектов как единого упорядоченного процесса.

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    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > modular data center

  • 18 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 19 AS

    1. adverb in main sentence
    (in same degree)

    as... [as...] — so... [wie...]

    they did as much as they could — sie taten, was sie konnten

    as good a player [as he] — ein so guter Spieler [wie er]

    2. relative adverb or conjunction in subordinate clause
    1) (expr. degree)

    [as or so]... as... — [so...] wie...

    as quickly as possible — so schnell wie möglich

    as... as you can — so...[, wie] Sie können

    come as quickly as you can — kommen Sie, so schnell Sie können

    2) (though)

    ... as he etc. is/was — obwohl er usw.... ist/war

    intelligent as she is,... — obwohl sie ziemlich intelligent ist,...

    safe as it might be,... — obwohl es vielleicht ungefährlich ist,...

    3) (however much)

    try as he might/would, he could not concentrate — sosehr er sich auch bemühte, er konnte sich nicht konzentrieren

    4) (expr. manner) wie

    as it were — sozusagen; gewissermaßen

    5) (expr. time) als; während

    as we climbed the stairs — als wir die Treppe hinaufgingen

    6) (expr. reason) da
    7) (expr. result)

    so... as to... — so... zu

    8) (expr. purpose)

    so as to... — um... zu...

    9) (expr. illustration) wie [zum Beispiel]

    industrial areas, as the north-east of England for example — Industriegebiete wie zum Beispiel der Nordosten Englands

    3. preposition
    1) (in the function of) als

    speaking as a parent,... — als Mutter/Vater...

    2) (like) wie
    4. relative pronoun

    they danced, as was the custom there — sie tanzten, wie es dort Sitte war

    he was shocked, as were we all — er war wie wir alle schockiert

    the same as... — der-/die-/dasselbe wie...

    they enjoy such foreign foods as... — sie essen gern ausländische Lebensmittel wie...

    5.

    as far — see academic.ru/26446/far">far 1. 4)

    as for... — was... angeht

    as from... — von... an

    as is — wie die Dinge liegen; wie es aussieht

    the place is untidy enough as it is — es ist schon liederlich genug[, wie es jetzt ist]

    as of... — (Amer.) von... an

    as to — hinsichtlich (+ Gen.)

    as yet — bis jetzt

    * * *
    [æz] 1. conjunction
    1) (when; while: I met John as I was coming home; We'll be able to talk as we go.) während
    2) (because: As I am leaving tomorrow, I've bought you a present.) weil
    3) (in the same way that: If you are not sure how to behave, do as I do.) so wie
    4) (used to introduce a statement of what the speaker knows or believes to be the case: As you know, I'll be leaving tomorrow.) wie
    5) (though: Old as I am, I can still fight; Much as I want to, I cannot go.) obgleich
    6) (used to refer to something which has already been stated and apply it to another person: Tom is English, as are Dick and Harry.) so wie
    2. adverb
    (used in comparisons, eg the first as in the following example: The bread was as hard as a brick.) so...wie
    3. preposition
    1) (used in comparisons, eg the second as in the following example: The bread was as hard as a brick.) so...wie
    2) (like: He was dressed as a woman.) wie
    3) (with certain verbs eg regard, treat, describe, accept: I am regarded by some people as a bit of a fool; He treats the children as adults.) wie
    4) (in the position of: He is greatly respected both as a person and as a politician.) als
    •
    - as for
    - as if / as though
    - as to
    * * *
    as
    [æz, əz]
    I. conj
    1. (while) als
    she sat watching him \as he cooked the dinner sie saß da und schaute ihm dabei zu, wie er das Abendessen kochte
    he gets more and more attractive \as he gets older er wird mit zunehmendem Alter immer attraktiver
    \as I was getting into the car, I noticed a piece of paper on the seat beim Einsteigen bemerkte ich ein Stück Papier auf dem Autositz
    2. (in the way that, like) wie
    knowing him \as I do, he won't do it wie ich ihn kenne, wird er es nicht tun
    \as is often the case with children,... wie das bei Kindern oft ist,...
    she is an actor, \as is her brother sie ist Schauspielerin, wie ihr Bruder
    all merchandise is sold \as is esp AM alle Waren werden verkauft, wie sie sind
    do \as I say! mach, was ich sage!
    ..., \as my mother puts it ( hum)..., wie meine Mutter [immer] zu sagen pflegt
    I'd never seen him looking so miserable \as he did that day ich habe ihn noch nie so traurig gesehen wie an dem Tag
    \as things happened [or stood] [or turned out],... wie sich zeigte,...
    \as it is [or stands],..., \as things are [or stand],... [so] wie die Dinge stehen,...
    \as it stood at the time,... so wie die Dinge damals standen,...
    exactly \as genauso wie
    just \as so wie
    \as it is (already) sowieso schon
    I've spent far too much money \as it is ich habe sowieso schon zu viel Geld ausgegeben
    \as it were sozusagen
    he's a little on the large side, \as it were er ist, sagen wir [ein]mal, ein bisschen groß geraten
    \as it happens rein zufällig
    \as it happens, I met him this morning rein zufällig [o wie der Zufall will], habe ich ihn heute Morgen getroffen
    \as you like [or prefer] [or wish] ( form) wie Sie wünschen
    \as if [or though] als ob
    she looked at me \as if she didn't understand a word sie schaute mich als, als würde sie kein Wort verstehen
    it isn't \as if she wasn't warned es ist ja nicht so, dass sie nicht gewarnt worden wäre, schließlich war sie ja gewarnt
    \as if I care[d]! als ob mich das interessieren würde!
    3. (because) weil, da geh
    \as you were out, I left a message weil du nicht da warst, habe ich eine Nachricht hinterlassen
    he may need some help \as he's new er braucht vielleicht Hilfe, weil er neu ist
    4. (used to add a comment) wie
    \as already mentioned,... wie bereits erwähnt,...
    \as you know,... wie du weißt,...
    she smiled and I smiled back, \as you do sie lächelte und ich lächelte zurück, du weißt schon
    \as if! ( iron) wohl kaum!, das denkst du aber auch nur! iron
    such riches \as he has, he is still not happy so reich er auch ist, glücklich ist er noch immer nicht
    angry \as he was,... so verärgert er auch war,...
    sweet \as he is,... so süß er auch ist,...
    try \as he might,... so sehr er es auch versucht,...
    6.
    ▶ \as for... was... betrifft
    he wasn't thrilled, \as for me, I thought it a good idea er war nicht begeistert, ich dagegen hielt es für eine gute Idee
    ▶ \as from [or of] ab
    \as from [or of] her 18th birthday, she is free to use the money nach der Vollendung des 18. Lebensjahres kann sie frei über das Geld verfügen
    \as of [or from] tomorrow/the first/next Monday ab morgen/dem Ersten/nächsten [o nächstem] Monat
    \as of [or from] now/today von jetzt/heute an, ab jetzt/heute
    ▶ \as to... was... angeht
    \as to her manual skills, we'll have to work on them was ihre handwerklichen Fähigkeiten angeht, daran müssen wir noch arbeiten
    \as to where we'll get the money from, we'll talk about that later wir müssen später noch besprechen, wo wir das Geld hernehmen
    he was uncertain \as to which road to take er war sich nicht sicher, welche Straße er nehmen sollte
    ▶ \as and when BRIT sobald
    you can revise them \as and when I send them to you du kannst sie redigieren, sobald ich sie dir schicke
    II. prep
    1. (in the past, being) als
    he was often ill \as a child als Kind war er oft krank
    2. (in the capacity, function of) als
    she was praised \as an actress, but less so \as a director als Schauspielerin wurde sie sehr gelobt, aber als Regisseurin weitaus weniger
    speaking \as a mother, I cannot accept that als Mutter kann ich das nicht akzeptieren
    what do you think of his book \as a basis for a film? was hältst du von seinem Buch als Grundlage für einen Film?
    3. (like, being) als
    he went to the fancy-dress party dressed \as a banana er kam als Banane verkleidet zum Kostümfest
    the news came \as no surprise die Nachricht war keine Überraschung
    use your coat \as a blanket nimm deinen Mantel als Decke
    such big names \as... so große Namen wie...
    such agricultural states \as Kansas and Oklahoma Agrarstaaten wie Kansas und Oklahoma
    the necklace was reported \as having been stolen die Kette war als gestohlen gemeldet
    I always thought of myself \as a good mother ich habe mich immer für eine gute Mutter gehalten
    do you regard punishment \as being essential in education? hältst du Strafen für unerlässlich in der Erziehung?
    \as a matter of principle aus Prinzip
    III. adv inv
    they live in the same town \as my parents sie wohnen in derselben Stadt wie meine Eltern
    ▪ [just] \as... \as... [genau]so... wie...
    he's \as tall \as Peter er ist so groß wie Peter
    I can run just \as fast \as you ich kann genauso schnell laufen wie du
    half \as... \as... halb so... wie...
    she's not half \as self-confident \as people think sie ist bei Weitem nicht so selbstbewusst, wie alle denken
    \as much \as so viel wie
    I don't earn \as much \as Paul ich verdiene nicht so viel wie Paul
    twice/three times \as much [\as] zweimal/dreimal so viel [wie]
    \as usual wie gewöhnlich
    you're late, \as usual du bist wie immer zu spät
    \as... \as that so...
    if you play \as well \as that,... wenn du so gut spielst,...
    he's not \as handsome \as that! so gut sieht er nun auch wieder nicht aus!
    2. (indicating an extreme)
    these sunflowers can grow \as tall \as 8 ft diese Sonnenblumen können bis zu 8 Fuß hoch werden
    \as many/much \as immerhin; (even) sogar
    the decision could affect \as many \as 2 million people die Entscheidung könnte immerhin 2 Millionen Menschen betreffen
    prices have risen by \as much \as 50% die Preise sind um ganze [o beachtliche] 50 % gestiegen
    \as little \as nur
    you can pick up a second-hand machine for \as little \as £20 ein gebrauchtes Gerät kriegt man schon für 20 Pfund
    * * *
    [z, əz]
    1. conj
    1) (= when, while) als; (two parallel actions) während, als, indem (geh)

    he got deafer as he got older —

    as a child he would... — als Kind hat er immer...

    2) (= since) da
    3)

    (= although) rich as he is I won't marry him — obwohl er reich ist, werde ich ihn nicht heiraten

    stupid as he is, he... — so dumm er auch sein mag,... er

    big as he is I'll... — so groß, wie er ist, ich...

    much as I admire her,... — sosehr ich sie auch bewundere,...

    try as he might — sosehr er sich auch bemüht/bemühte

    4) (manner) wie

    do as you like — machen Sie, was Sie wollen

    the first door as you go upstairs/as you go in — die erste Tür oben/, wenn Sie hereinkommen

    knowing him as I do —

    as you yourself said... — wie Sie selbst gesagt haben...

    as it is, I'm heavily in debt — ich bin schon tief verschuldet

    as it were — sozusagen, gleichsam

    as you were! (Mil) — weitermachen!; (fig) lassen Sie sich nicht stören; (in dictation, speaking) streichen Sie das

    my husband as was (inf) — mein verflossener or (late) verstorbener Mann

    5)

    (phrases) as if or though — als ob, wie wenn

    he rose as if to go — er erhob sich, als wollte er gehen

    as for him/you — (und) was ihn/dich anbetrifft or angeht

    as from or of the 5th — vom Fünften an, ab dem Fünften

    as from now — von jetzt an, ab jetzt

    be so good as to... (form) — hätten Sie die Freundlichkeit or Güte,... zu... (form)

    he's not so silly as to do that — er ist nicht so dumm, das zu tun, so dumm ist er nicht

    2. adv

    as... as — so... wie

    not as... as — nicht so... wie

    is it as difficult as that? —

    she is very clever, as is her brother — sie ist sehr intelligent, genau(so) wie ihr Bruder

    as many/much as I could — so viele/so viel ich (nur) konnte

    this one is just as good — diese(r, s) ist genauso gut

    as often happens, he was... — wie so oft, war er...

    3. rel pron
    1) (with same, such) der/die/das; (pl) die

    the same man as was here yesterday — derselbe Mann, der gestern hier war

    See:
    → such
    2) (dial) der/die/das; (pl) die
    4. prep
    1) (= in the capacity of) als
    2) (esp = such as) wie (zum Beispiel)
    * * *
    AS abk
    * * *
    1. adverb in main sentence

    as... [as...] — so... [wie...]

    they did as much as they could — sie taten, was sie konnten

    as good a player [as he] — ein so guter Spieler [wie er]

    2. relative adverb or conjunction in subordinate clause
    1) (expr. degree)

    [as or so]... as... — [so...] wie...

    as... as you can — so...[, wie] Sie können

    come as quickly as you can — kommen Sie, so schnell Sie können

    ... as he etc. is/was — obwohl er usw.... ist/war

    intelligent as she is,... — obwohl sie ziemlich intelligent ist,...

    safe as it might be,... — obwohl es vielleicht ungefährlich ist,...

    try as he might/would, he could not concentrate — sosehr er sich auch bemühte, er konnte sich nicht konzentrieren

    4) (expr. manner) wie

    as it were — sozusagen; gewissermaßen

    5) (expr. time) als; während
    6) (expr. reason) da
    7) (expr. result)

    so... as to... — so... zu

    8) (expr. purpose)

    so as to... — um... zu...

    9) (expr. illustration) wie [zum Beispiel]

    industrial areas, as the north-east of England for example — Industriegebiete wie zum Beispiel der Nordosten Englands

    3. preposition

    speaking as a parent,... — als Mutter/Vater...

    2) (like) wie
    4. relative pronoun

    they danced, as was the custom there — sie tanzten, wie es dort Sitte war

    he was shocked, as were we all — er war wie wir alle schockiert

    the same as... — der-/die-/dasselbe wie...

    they enjoy such foreign foods as... — sie essen gern ausländische Lebensmittel wie...

    5.

    as far — see far 1. 4)

    as for... — was... angeht

    as from... — von... an

    as is — wie die Dinge liegen; wie es aussieht

    the place is untidy enough as it is — es ist schon liederlich genug[, wie es jetzt ist]

    as of... — (Amer.) von... an

    as to — hinsichtlich (+ Gen.)

    * * *
    adv.
    als adv.
    da adv.
    ebenso/allso adv.
    indem (zeitlich) adv.
    obgleich konj.
    so adv.
    weil adv.
    wie adv.
    während adv.

    English-german dictionary > AS

  • 20 as

    1. adverb in main sentence
    (in same degree)

    as... [as...] — so... [wie...]

    they did as much as they could — sie taten, was sie konnten

    as good a player [as he] — ein so guter Spieler [wie er]

    2. relative adverb or conjunction in subordinate clause
    1) (expr. degree)

    [as or so]... as... — [so...] wie...

    as quickly as possible — so schnell wie möglich

    as... as you can — so...[, wie] Sie können

    come as quickly as you can — kommen Sie, so schnell Sie können

    2) (though)

    ... as he etc. is/was — obwohl er usw.... ist/war

    intelligent as she is,... — obwohl sie ziemlich intelligent ist,...

    safe as it might be,... — obwohl es vielleicht ungefährlich ist,...

    3) (however much)

    try as he might/would, he could not concentrate — sosehr er sich auch bemühte, er konnte sich nicht konzentrieren

    4) (expr. manner) wie

    as it were — sozusagen; gewissermaßen

    5) (expr. time) als; während

    as we climbed the stairs — als wir die Treppe hinaufgingen

    6) (expr. reason) da
    7) (expr. result)

    so... as to... — so... zu

    8) (expr. purpose)

    so as to... — um... zu...

    9) (expr. illustration) wie [zum Beispiel]

    industrial areas, as the north-east of England for example — Industriegebiete wie zum Beispiel der Nordosten Englands

    3. preposition
    1) (in the function of) als

    speaking as a parent,... — als Mutter/Vater...

    2) (like) wie
    4. relative pronoun

    they danced, as was the custom there — sie tanzten, wie es dort Sitte war

    he was shocked, as were we all — er war wie wir alle schockiert

    the same as... — der-/die-/dasselbe wie...

    they enjoy such foreign foods as... — sie essen gern ausländische Lebensmittel wie...

    5.

    as far — see academic.ru/26446/far">far 1. 4)

    as for... — was... angeht

    as from... — von... an

    as is — wie die Dinge liegen; wie es aussieht

    the place is untidy enough as it is — es ist schon liederlich genug[, wie es jetzt ist]

    as of... — (Amer.) von... an

    as to — hinsichtlich (+ Gen.)

    as yet — bis jetzt

    * * *
    [æz] 1. conjunction
    1) (when; while: I met John as I was coming home; We'll be able to talk as we go.) während
    2) (because: As I am leaving tomorrow, I've bought you a present.) weil
    3) (in the same way that: If you are not sure how to behave, do as I do.) so wie
    4) (used to introduce a statement of what the speaker knows or believes to be the case: As you know, I'll be leaving tomorrow.) wie
    5) (though: Old as I am, I can still fight; Much as I want to, I cannot go.) obgleich
    6) (used to refer to something which has already been stated and apply it to another person: Tom is English, as are Dick and Harry.) so wie
    2. adverb
    (used in comparisons, eg the first as in the following example: The bread was as hard as a brick.) so...wie
    3. preposition
    1) (used in comparisons, eg the second as in the following example: The bread was as hard as a brick.) so...wie
    2) (like: He was dressed as a woman.) wie
    3) (with certain verbs eg regard, treat, describe, accept: I am regarded by some people as a bit of a fool; He treats the children as adults.) wie
    4) (in the position of: He is greatly respected both as a person and as a politician.) als
    •
    - as for
    - as if / as though
    - as to
    * * *
    as
    [æz, əz]
    I. conj
    1. (while) als
    she sat watching him \as he cooked the dinner sie saß da und schaute ihm dabei zu, wie er das Abendessen kochte
    he gets more and more attractive \as he gets older er wird mit zunehmendem Alter immer attraktiver
    \as I was getting into the car, I noticed a piece of paper on the seat beim Einsteigen bemerkte ich ein Stück Papier auf dem Autositz
    2. (in the way that, like) wie
    knowing him \as I do, he won't do it wie ich ihn kenne, wird er es nicht tun
    \as is often the case with children,... wie das bei Kindern oft ist,...
    she is an actor, \as is her brother sie ist Schauspielerin, wie ihr Bruder
    all merchandise is sold \as is esp AM alle Waren werden verkauft, wie sie sind
    do \as I say! mach, was ich sage!
    ..., \as my mother puts it ( hum)..., wie meine Mutter [immer] zu sagen pflegt
    I'd never seen him looking so miserable \as he did that day ich habe ihn noch nie so traurig gesehen wie an dem Tag
    \as things happened [or stood] [or turned out],... wie sich zeigte,...
    \as it is [or stands],..., \as things are [or stand],... [so] wie die Dinge stehen,...
    \as it stood at the time,... so wie die Dinge damals standen,...
    exactly \as genauso wie
    just \as so wie
    \as it is (already) sowieso schon
    I've spent far too much money \as it is ich habe sowieso schon zu viel Geld ausgegeben
    \as it were sozusagen
    he's a little on the large side, \as it were er ist, sagen wir [ein]mal, ein bisschen groß geraten
    \as it happens rein zufällig
    \as it happens, I met him this morning rein zufällig [o wie der Zufall will], habe ich ihn heute Morgen getroffen
    \as you like [or prefer] [or wish] ( form) wie Sie wünschen
    \as if [or though] als ob
    she looked at me \as if she didn't understand a word sie schaute mich als, als würde sie kein Wort verstehen
    it isn't \as if she wasn't warned es ist ja nicht so, dass sie nicht gewarnt worden wäre, schließlich war sie ja gewarnt
    \as if I care[d]! als ob mich das interessieren würde!
    3. (because) weil, da geh
    \as you were out, I left a message weil du nicht da warst, habe ich eine Nachricht hinterlassen
    he may need some help \as he's new er braucht vielleicht Hilfe, weil er neu ist
    4. (used to add a comment) wie
    \as already mentioned,... wie bereits erwähnt,...
    \as you know,... wie du weißt,...
    she smiled and I smiled back, \as you do sie lächelte und ich lächelte zurück, du weißt schon
    \as if! ( iron) wohl kaum!, das denkst du aber auch nur! iron
    such riches \as he has, he is still not happy so reich er auch ist, glücklich ist er noch immer nicht
    angry \as he was,... so verärgert er auch war,...
    sweet \as he is,... so süß er auch ist,...
    try \as he might,... so sehr er es auch versucht,...
    6.
    ▶ \as for... was... betrifft
    he wasn't thrilled, \as for me, I thought it a good idea er war nicht begeistert, ich dagegen hielt es für eine gute Idee
    ▶ \as from [or of] ab
    \as from [or of] her 18th birthday, she is free to use the money nach der Vollendung des 18. Lebensjahres kann sie frei über das Geld verfügen
    \as of [or from] tomorrow/the first/next Monday ab morgen/dem Ersten/nächsten [o nächstem] Monat
    \as of [or from] now/today von jetzt/heute an, ab jetzt/heute
    ▶ \as to... was... angeht
    \as to her manual skills, we'll have to work on them was ihre handwerklichen Fähigkeiten angeht, daran müssen wir noch arbeiten
    \as to where we'll get the money from, we'll talk about that later wir müssen später noch besprechen, wo wir das Geld hernehmen
    he was uncertain \as to which road to take er war sich nicht sicher, welche Straße er nehmen sollte
    ▶ \as and when BRIT sobald
    you can revise them \as and when I send them to you du kannst sie redigieren, sobald ich sie dir schicke
    II. prep
    1. (in the past, being) als
    he was often ill \as a child als Kind war er oft krank
    2. (in the capacity, function of) als
    she was praised \as an actress, but less so \as a director als Schauspielerin wurde sie sehr gelobt, aber als Regisseurin weitaus weniger
    speaking \as a mother, I cannot accept that als Mutter kann ich das nicht akzeptieren
    what do you think of his book \as a basis for a film? was hältst du von seinem Buch als Grundlage für einen Film?
    3. (like, being) als
    he went to the fancy-dress party dressed \as a banana er kam als Banane verkleidet zum Kostümfest
    the news came \as no surprise die Nachricht war keine Überraschung
    use your coat \as a blanket nimm deinen Mantel als Decke
    such big names \as... so große Namen wie...
    such agricultural states \as Kansas and Oklahoma Agrarstaaten wie Kansas und Oklahoma
    the necklace was reported \as having been stolen die Kette war als gestohlen gemeldet
    I always thought of myself \as a good mother ich habe mich immer für eine gute Mutter gehalten
    do you regard punishment \as being essential in education? hältst du Strafen für unerlässlich in der Erziehung?
    \as a matter of principle aus Prinzip
    III. adv inv
    they live in the same town \as my parents sie wohnen in derselben Stadt wie meine Eltern
    ▪ [just] \as... \as... [genau]so... wie...
    he's \as tall \as Peter er ist so groß wie Peter
    I can run just \as fast \as you ich kann genauso schnell laufen wie du
    half \as... \as... halb so... wie...
    she's not half \as self-confident \as people think sie ist bei Weitem nicht so selbstbewusst, wie alle denken
    \as much \as so viel wie
    I don't earn \as much \as Paul ich verdiene nicht so viel wie Paul
    twice/three times \as much [\as] zweimal/dreimal so viel [wie]
    \as usual wie gewöhnlich
    you're late, \as usual du bist wie immer zu spät
    \as... \as that so...
    if you play \as well \as that,... wenn du so gut spielst,...
    he's not \as handsome \as that! so gut sieht er nun auch wieder nicht aus!
    2. (indicating an extreme)
    these sunflowers can grow \as tall \as 8 ft diese Sonnenblumen können bis zu 8 Fuß hoch werden
    \as many/much \as immerhin; (even) sogar
    the decision could affect \as many \as 2 million people die Entscheidung könnte immerhin 2 Millionen Menschen betreffen
    prices have risen by \as much \as 50% die Preise sind um ganze [o beachtliche] 50 % gestiegen
    \as little \as nur
    you can pick up a second-hand machine for \as little \as £20 ein gebrauchtes Gerät kriegt man schon für 20 Pfund
    * * *
    [z, əz]
    1. conj
    1) (= when, while) als; (two parallel actions) während, als, indem (geh)

    he got deafer as he got older —

    as a child he would... — als Kind hat er immer...

    2) (= since) da
    3)

    (= although) rich as he is I won't marry him — obwohl er reich ist, werde ich ihn nicht heiraten

    stupid as he is, he... — so dumm er auch sein mag,... er

    big as he is I'll... — so groß, wie er ist, ich...

    much as I admire her,... — sosehr ich sie auch bewundere,...

    try as he might — sosehr er sich auch bemüht/bemühte

    4) (manner) wie

    do as you like — machen Sie, was Sie wollen

    the first door as you go upstairs/as you go in — die erste Tür oben/, wenn Sie hereinkommen

    knowing him as I do —

    as you yourself said... — wie Sie selbst gesagt haben...

    as it is, I'm heavily in debt — ich bin schon tief verschuldet

    as it were — sozusagen, gleichsam

    as you were! (Mil) — weitermachen!; (fig) lassen Sie sich nicht stören; (in dictation, speaking) streichen Sie das

    my husband as was (inf) — mein verflossener or (late) verstorbener Mann

    5)

    (phrases) as if or though — als ob, wie wenn

    he rose as if to go — er erhob sich, als wollte er gehen

    as for him/you — (und) was ihn/dich anbetrifft or angeht

    as from or of the 5th — vom Fünften an, ab dem Fünften

    as from now — von jetzt an, ab jetzt

    be so good as to... (form) — hätten Sie die Freundlichkeit or Güte,... zu... (form)

    he's not so silly as to do that — er ist nicht so dumm, das zu tun, so dumm ist er nicht

    2. adv

    as... as — so... wie

    not as... as — nicht so... wie

    is it as difficult as that? —

    she is very clever, as is her brother — sie ist sehr intelligent, genau(so) wie ihr Bruder

    as many/much as I could — so viele/so viel ich (nur) konnte

    this one is just as good — diese(r, s) ist genauso gut

    as often happens, he was... — wie so oft, war er...

    3. rel pron
    1) (with same, such) der/die/das; (pl) die

    the same man as was here yesterday — derselbe Mann, der gestern hier war

    See:
    → such
    2) (dial) der/die/das; (pl) die
    4. prep
    1) (= in the capacity of) als
    2) (esp = such as) wie (zum Beispiel)
    * * *
    as [æz; unbetont əz; z]
    A adv
    1. so, ebenso, geradeso:
    I ran as fast as I could ich lief so schnell ich konnte;
    just as good ebenso gut;
    twice as large zweimal so groß
    2. wie (zum Beispiel):
    statesmen, as Churchill
    B konj
    1. (gerade) wie, so wie:
    as often as they wish sooft (wie) sie wünschen;
    as you wish wie Sie wünschen;
    as is the case wie es der Fall ist;
    a) (so) wie die Dinge liegen,
    b) schon;
    as and when wann immer;
    (as) soft as butter butterweich;
    as requested wunschgemäß;
    as I said before wie ich vorher oder schon sagte;
    as was their habit wie es ihre Gewohnheit war
    2. ebenso wie, genauso wie:
    then as now damals wie jetzt;
    you will reap as you sow wie man sät, so erntet man
    3. als, während, indem:
    as he entered als er eintrat, bei seinem Eintritt
    4. obwohl, obgleich, wenn auch, wie sehr, sosehr, wie:
    late as he was, he attended the session trotz seiner Verspätung nahm er noch an der Sitzung teil;
    old as I am so alt wie ich bin;
    try as he would sosehr er sich auch mühte;
    improbable as it seems so unwahrscheinlich es auch scheint
    5. da, weil:
    as you are sorry I’ll forgive you
    6. (als oder so) dass:
    so clearly guilty as to leave no doubt so offensichtlich schuldig, dass kein Zweifel bleibt
    C pron
    1. der, die, das, welch(er, e, es) ( nach such oder same):
    such as need our help diejenigen, welche unsere Hilfe brauchen;
    the same man as was here yesterday derselbe Mann, der gestern hier war
    2. was, welche Tatsache, wie:
    his health is not good, as he himself admits seine Gesundheit lässt zu wünschen übrig, was oder wie er selbst zugibt
    D präp als:
    he is as a father to me er ist zu mir wie ein VaterBesondere Redewendungen: as … as (eben)so … wie;
    as sweet as can be so süß wie nur möglich;
    as cheap as fifty pence the bottle für nur fünfzig Pence die Flasche;
    as recently as last week erst letzte Woche;
    as far as can be ascertained soweit es sich feststellen lässt;
    as at an oder WIRTSCH zu (einem Zeitpunkt);
    as from von einem Zeitpunkt an, ab (1. April etc);
    as is im gegenwärtigen Zustand;
    the car was sold as is der Wagen wurde, so wie er war, verkauft;
    as it were sozusagen, gewissermaßen, gleichsam;
    as of von einem Zeitpunkt an, ab (1. April etc);
    a) was … (an)betrifft, im Hinblick auf (akk),
    b) nach, gemäß (dat);
    as to this question was diese Frage betrifft;
    he is taxed as to his earnings er wird nach seinem Verdienst besteuert;
    as you were!
    a) MIL Kommando zurück!,
    b) allg alles zurück!; → against A 8, far Bes Redew, follow C 1, for A 23, good C 2, if1 A 1, invoice A, kind2 1, long1 B 1, much Bes Redew, per 3, though A 4, usual A, well1 A 12, yet A 1
    * * *
    1. adverb in main sentence

    as... [as...] — so... [wie...]

    they did as much as they could — sie taten, was sie konnten

    as good a player [as he] — ein so guter Spieler [wie er]

    2. relative adverb or conjunction in subordinate clause
    1) (expr. degree)

    [as or so]... as... — [so...] wie...

    as... as you can — so...[, wie] Sie können

    come as quickly as you can — kommen Sie, so schnell Sie können

    ... as he etc. is/was — obwohl er usw.... ist/war

    intelligent as she is,... — obwohl sie ziemlich intelligent ist,...

    safe as it might be,... — obwohl es vielleicht ungefährlich ist,...

    try as he might/would, he could not concentrate — sosehr er sich auch bemühte, er konnte sich nicht konzentrieren

    4) (expr. manner) wie

    as it were — sozusagen; gewissermaßen

    5) (expr. time) als; während
    6) (expr. reason) da
    7) (expr. result)

    so... as to... — so... zu

    8) (expr. purpose)

    so as to... — um... zu...

    9) (expr. illustration) wie [zum Beispiel]

    industrial areas, as the north-east of England for example — Industriegebiete wie zum Beispiel der Nordosten Englands

    3. preposition

    speaking as a parent,... — als Mutter/Vater...

    2) (like) wie
    4. relative pronoun

    they danced, as was the custom there — sie tanzten, wie es dort Sitte war

    he was shocked, as were we all — er war wie wir alle schockiert

    the same as... — der-/die-/dasselbe wie...

    they enjoy such foreign foods as... — sie essen gern ausländische Lebensmittel wie...

    5.

    as far — see far 1. 4)

    as for... — was... angeht

    as from... — von... an

    as is — wie die Dinge liegen; wie es aussieht

    the place is untidy enough as it is — es ist schon liederlich genug[, wie es jetzt ist]

    as of... — (Amer.) von... an

    as to — hinsichtlich (+ Gen.)

    * * *
    adv.
    als adv.
    da adv.
    ebenso/allso adv.
    indem (zeitlich) adv.
    obgleich konj.
    so adv.
    weil adv.
    wie adv.
    während adv.

    English-german dictionary > as

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